2) Affective Polarization Patterns: In Peru, outgroup animosity substantially outweighs ingroup favoritism across multiple measures. Citizens are more motivated to oppose the "other side" than support their own.

Why this asymmetry? Two potential explanations:

1) Low Political Trust: When citizens receive political cues, they face conflicting signals, a shared identity (Fujimorismo/anti-Fujimorismo) from a distrusted source (politicians). This creates cross-pressure that weakens ingroup effects.

I conducted a survey experiment with 1,546 Peruvians, randomly exposing them to Fujimorista or anti-Fujimorista cues attached to real policy proposals currently discussed in Congress. Results show that political cues significantly influence policy preferences even without strong partisan brands.

Yet despite these harsh conditions for partisan attachments, Peru has two enduring non-partisan political identities: Fujimorismo and anti-Fujimorismo. These are defined not by party loyalty, but by opposing stances on the country's authoritarian past under Alberto Fujimori.

I test this argument in Peru, an extreme case of party system breakdown. Between 2015 and 2024, Peru had seven presidents, averaging just 1.1 years per president.