Articles of War
@articlesofwar.bsky.social
Timely debate and analysis of legal challenges on the contemporary battlefield. /Lieber Institute, West Point USMA
2025 brought a stress-testing of #LOAC & the int. community. It was a sustained inquiry into whether the laws of war can meaningfully constrain violence in an age of strategic competition, technological acceleration & protracted conflict & if so, how. lieber.westpoint.edu/year-in-revi...
Year in Review - 2025 - Lieber Institute West Point
2025 brought a stress-testing of law of armed conflict and the international community, pressure point by pressure point.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 29, 2025 at 3:44 PM
2025 brought a stress-testing of #LOAC & the int. community. It was a sustained inquiry into whether the laws of war can meaningfully constrain violence in an age of strategic competition, technological acceleration & protracted conflict & if so, how. lieber.westpoint.edu/year-in-revi...
Robert Kolb analyzes in his post the doctrine of #doublequalification and concludes that it is neither necessary nor balanced. It does not address a dangerous gap in international humanitarian law. lieber.westpoint.edu/double-quali...
The Double Qualification of a Single Act of Belligerence - Lieber Institute West Point
It appears that the doctrine of double qualification is neither necessary nor balanced, as it does not address a dangerous gap in IHL.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 26, 2025 at 3:45 PM
Robert Kolb analyzes in his post the doctrine of #doublequalification and concludes that it is neither necessary nor balanced. It does not address a dangerous gap in international humanitarian law. lieber.westpoint.edu/double-quali...
The U.S. Air Force’s & Anduril’s ambitious wingman program, Fury, has already lifted off. Davit Khachatryan analyzes the possibility that attritable autonomous wingmen could support more rigorous precautionary practice. lieber.westpoint.edu/clarity-cons...
Clarity and Consequence: Autonomous Wingmen and the Rising Standard of Feasible Precautions - Lieber Institute West Point
Possibility of attritable autonomous wingmen supporting more rigorous precautionary practice depends on the architecture surrounding them.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 23, 2025 at 3:20 PM
The U.S. Air Force’s & Anduril’s ambitious wingman program, Fury, has already lifted off. Davit Khachatryan analyzes the possibility that attritable autonomous wingmen could support more rigorous precautionary practice. lieber.westpoint.edu/clarity-cons...
As we approach the end of 2025, Articles of War will be welcoming several exciting changes to our editorial board. Please join us in congratulating Prof. Jennifer Maddocks on her new appointment. lieber.westpoint.edu/articles-of-...
Articles of War Editorial Board Changes - Lieber Institute West Point
This post provides an overview of Articles of War's editorial board's changes happening in 2025, from managing editor to a new senior editor.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 22, 2025 at 2:34 PM
As we approach the end of 2025, Articles of War will be welcoming several exciting changes to our editorial board. Please join us in congratulating Prof. Jennifer Maddocks on her new appointment. lieber.westpoint.edu/articles-of-...
It is often claimed that #IHL is in its greatest part #peremptory, or at least a type of regulation akin to #juscogens and protected in the same way as peremptory law. Robert Kolb critically reviews the arguments advanced to buttress this position. lieber.westpoint.edu/internationa...
International Humanitarian Law as Jus Cogens - Lieber Institute West Point
It is often claimed that IHL is in its greatest part peremptory, or at least a type of regulation akin to jus cogens.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 19, 2025 at 6:28 PM
It is often claimed that #IHL is in its greatest part #peremptory, or at least a type of regulation akin to #juscogens and protected in the same way as peremptory law. Robert Kolb critically reviews the arguments advanced to buttress this position. lieber.westpoint.edu/internationa...
The final part of Sean Watts’s post recounts an often-forgotten episode in the history of post-conflict #POW #repatriation and offers concluding thoughts on efforts to further refine and harmonize views on this critical law of war protective regime. lieber.westpoint.edu/prisoner-war...
Prisoner of War Repatriation and Interpretive Choice - Part III: A Lesson from Military History? - Lieber Institute West Point
No episode involving prisoner of war repatriation illustrates its complexities better than the Korean War.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 17, 2025 at 5:32 PM
The final part of Sean Watts’s post recounts an often-forgotten episode in the history of post-conflict #POW #repatriation and offers concluding thoughts on efforts to further refine and harmonize views on this critical law of war protective regime. lieber.westpoint.edu/prisoner-war...
A challenging situation attaches to the question of #involuntary post-war repatriations of prisoners of war. In Part II of his post, Sean Watts addresses the difficult and close question of involuntary #repatriation of #POWs. lieber.westpoint.edu/prisoner-war...
Prisoner of War Repatriation and Interpretive Choice - Part II: Involuntary Post-War Repatriation - Lieber Institute West Point
Part II of this post considers the difficult and close question of involuntary repatriation of prisoners of war.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 16, 2025 at 3:27 PM
A challenging situation attaches to the question of #involuntary post-war repatriations of prisoners of war. In Part II of his post, Sean Watts addresses the difficult and close question of involuntary #repatriation of #POWs. lieber.westpoint.edu/prisoner-war...
POW #repatriations have long been contentious post-war affairs. Sean Watts explores the law of war applicable to post-conflict #POW repatriation. The first post outlines the legal framework & explores reciprocity as a fault line behind many repatriation disputes. lieber.westpoint.edu/prisoner-war...
Prisoner of War Repatriation and Interpretive Choice - Part I: The Legal Framework and Reciprocity - Lieber Institute West Point
Part I of this post explores LOAC applicable to post-war repatriation of POWs and reciprocity questions from repatriation efforts.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 15, 2025 at 4:56 PM
POW #repatriations have long been contentious post-war affairs. Sean Watts explores the law of war applicable to post-conflict #POW repatriation. The first post outlines the legal framework & explores reciprocity as a fault line behind many repatriation disputes. lieber.westpoint.edu/prisoner-war...
Legal reviews of #AI systems pose significant legal & practical challenges due to their technical & operational features. Tobias Vestner & Nicolo Borgesano explore how insights from legal reviews of #cyberweapons can inform those of AI systems/AI-enabled weapons. lieber.westpoint.edu/legal-review...
Legal Reviews of War Algorithms: From Cyber Weapons to AI Systems - Lieber Institute West Point
This post explores how insights from legal reviews of cyber weapons can inform those of AI systems and AI-enabled weapons.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 12, 2025 at 3:55 PM
Legal reviews of #AI systems pose significant legal & practical challenges due to their technical & operational features. Tobias Vestner & Nicolo Borgesano explore how insights from legal reviews of #cyberweapons can inform those of AI systems/AI-enabled weapons. lieber.westpoint.edu/legal-review...
This past September, the 4th Annual Symposium on Cyber & International Law took place. Emily Bobenrieth provides an overview of a panel discussion, which explored whether #AI-enabled cyber ops in armed conflict present uncertainty in application of #LOAC. lieber.westpoint.edu/gaps-seams-l...
Gaps and Seams in the Law of Armed Conflict for AI-Enabled Cyber Operations - Lieber Institute West Point
The use of AI to enable cyber operations will accelerate growing integration of cyber into military operations.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 10, 2025 at 6:30 PM
This past September, the 4th Annual Symposium on Cyber & International Law took place. Emily Bobenrieth provides an overview of a panel discussion, which explored whether #AI-enabled cyber ops in armed conflict present uncertainty in application of #LOAC. lieber.westpoint.edu/gaps-seams-l...
Myanmar’s civil unrest is traditionally characterised as a #NIAC. Su Myat Thwe and @rosalauterbach.bsky.social examine the challenges to #LOAC’s authority and application that the conflict poses and explain where the conflict currently stands. lieber.westpoint.edu/anything-oth...
Anything Other Than a Classic NIAC: Examining Myanmar’s Legal Battlefield - Lieber Institute West Point
Increasing phenomenological and epistemic uncertainty following Myanmar's 2021 coup casts doubt on the conflict's categorisation as a NIAC.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 9, 2025 at 6:28 PM
Myanmar’s civil unrest is traditionally characterised as a #NIAC. Su Myat Thwe and @rosalauterbach.bsky.social examine the challenges to #LOAC’s authority and application that the conflict poses and explain where the conflict currently stands. lieber.westpoint.edu/anything-oth...
On October 28, Ukrainian “Sea Baby drones” attacked two Gambian-flagged #oiltankers, the Kairos and Virat, presumably part of Russia’s #shadowfleet. Wolff Heintschel von Heinegg discusses contributions to enemy’s war-sustaining efforts and lawful targets. lieber.westpoint.edu/ukrainian-at...
The Ukrainian Attacks Against Gambian-Flagged Oil Tankers in the Black Sea - Lieber Institute West Point
On October 28, 2025, Ukrainian so-called “Sea Baby drones” attacked two Gambian-flagged oil tankers, the Kairos and Virat.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 8, 2025 at 5:46 PM
On October 28, Ukrainian “Sea Baby drones” attacked two Gambian-flagged #oiltankers, the Kairos and Virat, presumably part of Russia’s #shadowfleet. Wolff Heintschel von Heinegg discusses contributions to enemy’s war-sustaining efforts and lawful targets. lieber.westpoint.edu/ukrainian-at...
IHL prohibits the misuse of certain indicators, such as the ICRC’s distinctive emblems. Jonathan Kwik and Adriaan Wiese ask in their post whether #AI could independently learn that abusing IHL’s protective indicators is its most optimal course-of-action. lieber.westpoint.edu/can-ai-teach...
Can AI Teach Itself to Abuse IHL-Protected Indicators? - Lieber Institute West Point
Could AI independently learn that abusing IHL’s protective indicators is its most optimal course-of-action?
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 5, 2025 at 4:47 PM
IHL prohibits the misuse of certain indicators, such as the ICRC’s distinctive emblems. Jonathan Kwik and Adriaan Wiese ask in their post whether #AI could independently learn that abusing IHL’s protective indicators is its most optimal course-of-action. lieber.westpoint.edu/can-ai-teach...
The principle on #boobytraps is timeless: war should not rely on treachery disguised as trust. If #cyberspace has blurred the front lines, then the law must learn to travel across them too, argues Samuel White. lieber.westpoint.edu/tripwires-tr...
Tripwires to Trojans: Updating the Law of Booby-traps for the Digital Age - Lieber Institute West Point
Bringing booby-traps into the digital era does not require rewriting international humanitarian law from scratch.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 3, 2025 at 4:43 PM
The principle on #boobytraps is timeless: war should not rely on treachery disguised as trust. If #cyberspace has blurred the front lines, then the law must learn to travel across them too, argues Samuel White. lieber.westpoint.edu/tripwires-tr...
Raphaël van Steenberghe examines in his post #Israel’s status as an #occupyingpower in the #Gaza Strip in relation to all the obligations identified by the @CIJ_ICJ in its latest advisory opinion on the Occupied #Palestinian Territory. lieber.westpoint.edu/qualifying-i...
The ICJ Obligations of Israel Advisory Opinion – Qualifying Israel as an Occupying Power in the Gaza Strip - Lieber Institute West Point
This post examines Israel’s status as an occupying power in the Gaza Strip in relation to all the obligations identified by the ICJ.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 2, 2025 at 3:12 PM
Raphaël van Steenberghe examines in his post #Israel’s status as an #occupyingpower in the #Gaza Strip in relation to all the obligations identified by the @CIJ_ICJ in its latest advisory opinion on the Occupied #Palestinian Territory. lieber.westpoint.edu/qualifying-i...
“Ukraine Symposium: International Law in the Crucible of Conflict – Vol. 2” will be available soon from the West Point Press!
Read more here: press.westpoint.edu/books/ukrain...
Read more here: press.westpoint.edu/books/ukrain...
Ukraine Symposium—Volume 2 | West Point Press
press.westpoint.edu
December 2, 2025 at 1:47 PM
“Ukraine Symposium: International Law in the Crucible of Conflict – Vol. 2” will be available soon from the West Point Press!
Read more here: press.westpoint.edu/books/ukrain...
Read more here: press.westpoint.edu/books/ukrain...
23 States have appended some declarations when ratifying or acceding to the 1949 #GenevaConventions. Not all these declarations embody #reservations. Robert Kolb catalogues and categorizes statements, understandings, and reservations by States to the GCs. lieber.westpoint.edu/reservations...
Reservations in the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Validity - Lieber Institute West Point
This post catalogues and categorizes statements, understandings, and reservations by States to the Geneva Conventions.
lieber.westpoint.edu
December 1, 2025 at 3:21 PM
23 States have appended some declarations when ratifying or acceding to the 1949 #GenevaConventions. Not all these declarations embody #reservations. Robert Kolb catalogues and categorizes statements, understandings, and reservations by States to the GCs. lieber.westpoint.edu/reservations...
In his concluding post, @francescoromani.bsky.social reflects on wider #policy implications of formalizing #belligerent #reprisals under the #reciprocity framework instead of the enforcement one. lieber.westpoint.edu/belligerent-...
Belligerent Reprisals Series – Concluding Thoughts - Lieber Institute West Point
This post reflects on the wider policy implications of formalizing belligerent reprisals under the reciprocity framework.
lieber.westpoint.edu
November 28, 2025 at 1:03 PM
In his concluding post, @francescoromani.bsky.social reflects on wider #policy implications of formalizing #belligerent #reprisals under the #reciprocity framework instead of the enforcement one. lieber.westpoint.edu/belligerent-...
Francesco Romani’s reconceptualization of belligerent #reprisals is stimulating and provocative. Yet, as with all attempts to reframe foundational concepts, it raises difficult questions, argues Veronika Bílková.
lieber.westpoint.edu/enforcement-...
lieber.westpoint.edu/enforcement-...
Belligerent Reprisals Series – Enforcement, Reciprocity, and the Elusive NIAC Dimension - Lieber Institute West Point
The crossroads at which belligerent reprisals meet NIAC remains a test of international humanitarian law's resilience.
lieber.westpoint.edu
November 26, 2025 at 3:32 PM
Francesco Romani’s reconceptualization of belligerent #reprisals is stimulating and provocative. Yet, as with all attempts to reframe foundational concepts, it raises difficult questions, argues Veronika Bílková.
lieber.westpoint.edu/enforcement-...
lieber.westpoint.edu/enforcement-...
. #Proportionality is one of the most widely used concepts in international law. However, its recurrence across different legal regimes should not lead to the mistaken assumption that it carries a single meaning, argues @mikeschmitt.bsky.social. lieber.westpoint.edu/parsing-prop...
In Honor of Françoise Hampson - Parsing Proportionality - Lieber Institute West Point
This post explains how proportionality operates differently in jus ad bellum, LOAC, ICL, IHRL, and law of State responsibility.
lieber.westpoint.edu
November 25, 2025 at 5:18 PM
. #Proportionality is one of the most widely used concepts in international law. However, its recurrence across different legal regimes should not lead to the mistaken assumption that it carries a single meaning, argues @mikeschmitt.bsky.social. lieber.westpoint.edu/parsing-prop...
Stuart Casey-Maslen considers in his post the extent to which #weapons whose use is illegal under #LOAC may be used in belligerent #reprisals. lieber.westpoint.edu/reprisals-wi...
Belligerent Reprisals Series - Reprisals with Weapons - Lieber Institute West Point
This post tackles reprisals from the angle of weapons law, addressing situations where unlawful use of a lawful weapon may be justified.
lieber.westpoint.edu
November 24, 2025 at 3:49 PM
Stuart Casey-Maslen considers in his post the extent to which #weapons whose use is illegal under #LOAC may be used in belligerent #reprisals. lieber.westpoint.edu/reprisals-wi...
Recent occurrences in on-going #armedconflicts have brought back into international legal discourse the notion of #belligerent #reprisals. @francescoromani.bsky.social introduces the Belligerent Reprisals Series. lieber.westpoint.edu/belligerent-...
Belligerent Reprisals Series – Changing the Paradigm to Rein in Retaliation in Armed Conflict - Lieber Institute West Point
Recent events have brought back the notion of belligerent reprisals incl. its definition, regulation, and permissibility under modern IHL.
lieber.westpoint.edu
November 21, 2025 at 12:07 PM
Recent occurrences in on-going #armedconflicts have brought back into international legal discourse the notion of #belligerent #reprisals. @francescoromani.bsky.social introduces the Belligerent Reprisals Series. lieber.westpoint.edu/belligerent-...
In late October 2025, @CIJ_ICJ delivered another #AO in relation to Palestine. @jemtseva.bsky.social discusses in her post the “indispensable character” of the #UN and the provision of #humanitarianaid by new types of private actors. lieber.westpoint.edu/how-indispen...
The ICJ Obligations of Israel Advisory Opinion – How Indispensable Is the UN After All? - Lieber Institute West Point
This post focuses on the “indispensable character” of the UN and the provision of humanitarian aid by new types of private actors.
lieber.westpoint.edu
November 19, 2025 at 4:05 PM
In late October 2025, @CIJ_ICJ delivered another #AO in relation to Palestine. @jemtseva.bsky.social discusses in her post the “indispensable character” of the #UN and the provision of #humanitarianaid by new types of private actors. lieber.westpoint.edu/how-indispen...
The Italian National Cybersecurity Agency plays a critical role in the defense of Italy’s digital domain. Adriano Iaria examines whether its infrastructure and objects could be legitimate military objectives in the event of an armed conflict. lieber.westpoint.edu/military-obj...
Military Objective or Civilian Object? The Italian National Cybersecurity Agency's Status in Case of Armed Conflict - Lieber Institute West Point
From an IHL perspective, the ACN occupies a nuanced position within Italy’s national cybersecurity architecture.
lieber.westpoint.edu
November 17, 2025 at 5:31 PM
The Italian National Cybersecurity Agency plays a critical role in the defense of Italy’s digital domain. Adriano Iaria examines whether its infrastructure and objects could be legitimate military objectives in the event of an armed conflict. lieber.westpoint.edu/military-obj...
Bryan Peeler asks in his post why does #reciprocity refuse to die. He argues that reciprocity endures as the hidden grammar of compliance and legitimacy in #warfare despite more than a century of legal reform seeking to purge it from #IHL. lieber.westpoint.edu/why-reciproc...
Why Reciprocity Refuses to Die: The Enduring Logic of Fairness in War - Lieber Institute West Point
Reciprocity endures as hidden grammar of compliance and legitimacy in warfare despite the legal reform seeking to purge it from IHL.
lieber.westpoint.edu
November 14, 2025 at 4:43 PM
Bryan Peeler asks in his post why does #reciprocity refuse to die. He argues that reciprocity endures as the hidden grammar of compliance and legitimacy in #warfare despite more than a century of legal reform seeking to purge it from #IHL. lieber.westpoint.edu/why-reciproc...