Pain specificity was evident when we measured variations in stimulus intensity, whether we used univariate or multivariate approaches, but there was minimal evidence of specificity by modality or aversiveness when we examined cue effects on medium trials.

Notably, the left anterior insula mediated domain-general cue effects on subjective intensity and the thalamus mediated cue effects on subjective valence, which two regions were nearly identical to those previously implicated in mediating cue effects on pain (Atlas et al., 2010).

Results showed learned cues modulated expectations and subjective outcomes similarly across domains. Consistent with this, the orbitofrontal cortex exhibited domain-general anticipatory activation.

Sixty participants were randomly assigned to receive painful heat, unpleasant liquid saline, or pleasant liquid sucrose in the scanner. After conditioning, cues linked to low or high intensity outcomes were followed by stimuli calibrated to medium intensity ratings.