Our study shows that escalation is shaped by patterns of state response and that exclusion sometimes emerge as result of violence. It also demonstrates how comparative qualitative case-studies can trace mechanisms, address endogeneity and measurement validity, and support cautious generalization.

In three of the cases, mobilization was followed by inconsistent response by the government. In the last six cases, conflict itself produced exclusion, revealing recursive dynamics rather than a one-way sequence.

The paper presents the theoretical (minimalist, procedural) underpinning of the definition and selection of indicators from different parts of the V-Dem experts survey. It also demonstrates that the indicators tap into a common underlying dimension and show high levels of scalability.

There is widespread skepticism regarding the use of AI tools to generate offensive content both in absolute terms and compared to similar statements by individuals. There is stronger support for allowing governments and tech companies to restrict the use of generative AI tools than social media.

In the US, men, as well as the young and the middle-aged, show declining support for free speech across different kinds of sensitive issues, including lower tolerance of statements that support homosexual relationships and insults to the American flag.

Most nations show high levels of support for free speech in the abstract, but support is lower and more divided when it comes to statements that are offensive to minorities or one’s own religion, supportive of homosexual relationships, or insulting to the national flag.

Scandinavian countries (Norway, Denmark, and Sweden) and two democratic backsliders (Hungary and Venezuela) show the highest levels of support for free speech. Japan, Israel, and the United States show the biggest drops in support since 2021.

There is widespread skepticism regarding the use of AI tools to generate offensive content both in absolute terms and compared to similar statements by individuals. There is stronger support for allowing governments and tech companies to restrict the use of generative AI tools than social media.

Japan, Israel, and the United States show the biggest drops in support since 2021. Indonesia, Malaysia, and Pakistan have shown the most improvement but still rank among the lowest in free speech support.

Scandinavian countries (Norway, Denmark, and Sweden) and two democratic backsliders (Hungary and Venezuela) show the highest levels of support for free speech. Support for free speech shows a strong co-variation with the actual level of freedom of expression.