These findings highlight the importance of not only preventing wildlife declines (thus preventing co-extinction of parasites), but of incorporating parasite conservation into the conservation of host species, keeping as much of the host's native ecology intact as possible.

While this species was not found in the study, there is a tapeworm species (Stringopotaenia psittacea) which may be exclusive to the kākāpō. It resembles only one other tapeworm, Pulluterina nestoris, found in the kea, also endemic to New Zealand. Left image is P. nestoris, right is S. psittacea.

This decline may represent two phenomena related to parasite ecology: co-extinction (when a parasite is made extinct alongside its host) and conservation-induced extinction (when a parasite is made extinct by conservation action aimed at its host, which usually includes anti-parasitic treatment).

They found that there were fewer parasite taxa in the modern (post-1990) samples than in the Historic (c. 1840-1990) samples, and that both groups of samples had fewer taxa than were present in the Ancient (c. 1280-c. 1840) samples.

In their recently-published study, Boast et al. (2025) examined kākāpō feces from two periods for parasites: the kākāpō's decline after human settlement (c. 1280-1990) and the eventual full management of the kākāpō population by the New Zealand government from 1990 onwards.

Here is where conservation can play a key role. Much of what we know about the modern distribution of G. rhinocerontis comes from iNaturalist, and the reintroduction of rhinos into Kruger National Park seems to have reintroduced the flies as well, promising hope for recovery of both species. (7/7)

Reliant on their rhino hosts, all Gyrostigma are threatened by poaching and habitat loss. G. rhinocerontis is known to survive in South Africa, while G. conjungens and G. sumatrensis are feared extinct after the catastrophic declines of the Black and Sumatran Rhinos. (6/7)

On the whole, studying these flies is uniquely difficult: the adults are very short-lived, and the larvae develop as endoparasites within their hosts. Much of what we know comes from larvae found in the stomachs of deceased rhinos, or flies that "hitchhiked" in rhinos imported into captivity. (5/6)

Gyrostigma sumatrensis is the only known member of its genus outside of Africa, and also the most mysterious one. This enigmatic fly is only known from larvae recovered from Sumatran Rhinos imported to German zoos from Sumatra in the 19th century, with the adult completely unknown. (4/6)

Gyrostigma conjungens specializes on the Black Rhino and has historically been found in East Africa, although it hasn't been observed in the wild for over 50 years. The limited evidence available to us suggests that adults emerge once a year to reproduce, similar to G. rhinocerontis. (3/6)

Gyrostigma rhinocerontis, the best-known Gyrostigma fly and the largest African fly, parasitizes the White Rhino and Black Rhino. Adults emerge twice a year and mate, lay eggs, and die in the span of a week. They resemble wasps with their size and striking colors, a possible case of mimicry. (2/6)

The family Nuttalliellidae is represented by just one living species, Nuttalliella namaqua, native to southern and eastern Africa. A unique and ancient host-opportunist, this species shares features of the hard ticks (partly sclerotized scutum) and the soft ticks (leathery outer covering). (4/4)

The soft ticks (family Argasidae) lack the scutum of their relatives, instead having a leathery outer covering. These ticks often remain in the burrows or nests of their hosts rather than actively pursuing ("questing") hosts, and feed for much shorter periods than hard ticks. (3/4)

The hard ticks (family Ixodidae) are likely what you imagine when you think of a tick, distinguished by a sclerotized shield (or scutum) that covers most of the body of males, but only a tiny part of the females, which need to expand with blood, providing plenty of nutrients for their eggs. (2/4)

This study found that one parasite, the the Australian Myotis Batfly (Basilia hamsmithi) were less abundant on bats in urban and suburban areas, indicating that urbanization may threaten wild parasite species like these along with their hosts in ways we're just beginning to understand. (3/3)

In a 2022 study, Group co-chair Mackenzie L. Kwak, Vanessa Gorecki, and Gregory Markowsky studied how ectoparasites living on the locally threatened Large-footed Myotis (Myotis macropus) are affected by urbanization in and around Brisbane, Australia. (2/3)

This species is known from the Eastern Quoll (Dasyurus viverrinus) and the Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) in Tasmania. It is threatened by Devil Facial Tumor Disease, a fatal contagious cancer among Tasmanian Devils. Because of this, we consider it co-threatened alongside its host.