Invention Name Hygrometer Short Definition Instrument that measures air humidity (often RH or dew point) Approximate Date / Period 1783 (quantitative hair hygrometer) — Certain Geography Europe (early scientific instrumentation); now global Inventor / Source Culture Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (Details-1) Category Meteorology; Measurement; Environmental Monitoring Importance Turns moisture in air into readable data Supports stable storage, comfort, and precision processes…

Invention Name Mercury Barometer (Torricelli) Short Definition Atmospheric-pressure instrument using a mercury column Approximate Date / Period 1644 Certain Geography Italy (Florence) Inventor / Source Culture Evangelista Torricelli Category Measurement; Meteorology; Physics Need / Reason It Emerged Explaining fluid-column limits; testing air weight How It Works Air pressure balances mercury-column weight Material / Technology Basis

Invention Name Air Thermometer (Galileo-Type Thermoscope) Short Definition An open air-expansion device where a liquid column shifts to show temperature change Approximate Date / Period 1590s (often cited 1592–1597) Debated (Details-1) (Details-2)

Invention Name Leyden Jar (Leiden Jar) Short Definition Early capacitor that stores static electric charge (Details-2) Approximate Date / Period 1745–1746 Disputed Geography Leiden (Dutch Republic); Pomerania (Central Europe) Inventor / Source Culture Pieter van Musschenbroek; Ewald Georg von Kleist Independent (Details-1)

Invention Name Micrometer Screw Short Definition Precision screw mechanism that converts rotation into very small, measurable linear motion Approximate Date / Period Early 1640s Approximate (astronomical screw micrometer); 1848 Exact (handheld micrometer caliper) Geography Yorkshire (England); Paris (France) Inventor / Source Culture William Gascoigne (early screw micrometer) (Details-1); Jean-Laurent Palmer (handheld micrometer caliper) (Details-2)

Invention Name Vacuum Pump

Invention Name Aeolipile (Hero’s Engine) Short Definition Steam-driven rotating sphere powered by reaction jets Approximate Date / Period 1st Century CE Approximate Geography Alexandria, Egypt (Hellenistic/Roman-era scientific tradition) Inventor / Source Culture Hero (Heron) of Alexandria / Alexandrian engineering Category Energy Conversion • Mechanics • Pneumatics Need / Reason It Emerged Demonstrate pressure, steam, and motion in teaching devices How It Works…

Field Value Invention Name Pendulum Regulator Short Definition Pendulum-controlled time regulator for mechanical clocks Approximate Date / Period 1656 1 Confirmed Geography Europe (early modern clockmaking centers) Inventor / Source Culture Christiaan Huygens (first practical design); earlier concepts in Galileo-era studies Category Timekeeping / Measurement Importance Stable reference for accurate clocks Precision standard for science and public time

Field Value Invention Name Adding Machine Short Description Office machine for fast totals and repeatable arithmetic Approximate Date / Period 1880s (Approx.) Geography United States (commercial core); Europe (wide adoption) Inventor / Source Culture Multi-inventor era: William S. Burroughs; Dorr E. Felt; others Category Office equipment; mechanical calculation; accounting Importance Speed for large columns of numbers Consistency and (often) …

Invention Name Leibniz Mechanical Calculator (Stepped Reckoner / Machina Arithmetica) Short Definition A gear-driven calculator that mechanizes addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division

Invention Name Calculating Machine (Pascaline) Short Definition Mechanical calculator for addition and subtraction with an automatic carry mechanism. Approximate Date / Period 1642–1645 Certain Geography Rouen (Normandy), France Inventor / Source Culture Blaise Pascal; 17th-century French craftsmanship Category Mechanical computation; accounting; early business machine Need / Reason Tax and currency arithmetic; reliable totals; fewer manual errors How It Works Dial wheels + result windows + gravity-assisted carry (“sautoir”) Material / Technology Base Gears; numeral wheels; metal levers; wooden case First Known Use Context Tax administration; commercial accounting; demonstrations in learned circles Typical Capacity Multi-wheel totals up to large place values Varies by model Known Surviving Examples About 9 Approximate Importance …

Invention Name Slide Rule Short Definition Handheld analog calculator using logarithmic scales for fast computation Approximate Date / Period Early 1620s Approximate Details Geography England (early design); later global use Inventor / Source Culture William Oughtred (early slide rule); built on logarithmic mathematics Category Computation • Engineering Tools • Mathematics Importance • Portable precision calculation

Invention Name Air Pump Short Description Moves air to change pressure in a space Approximate Date / Period c. 1650 (Approximate)

Field Value Invention Name Pocket Watch Short Definition A portable mechanical timepiece designed to be carried in a pocket, usually on a chain. Approximate Date / Period Shortly after 1500 ApproximateDetails Geography Europe (early centers incl. German lands; later wider adoption) Inventor / Source Culture Collective craft tradition; early examples linked to Nuremberg workshops Debated Category Timekeeping

Invention Name Pendulum Clock Short Definition Mechanical clock regulated by a swinging pendulum. Approximate Date / Period 1656–1657 Certain Geography Dutch Republic (Netherlands); later across Europe Inventor / Source Culture Christiaan Huygens (concept); early makers include Salomon Coster Category Timekeeping; scientific instruments; mechanical engineering Importance Precision leap for everyday and scientific time Standard “beat” enabled reliable seconds

Invention Name Parachute (Leonardo da Vinci Concept) Short Definition Pyramid-canopy descent device sketched in a Renaissance notebook Approximate Date / Period c. 1485 Approximate Geography Renaissance Italy Inventor / Source Culture Leonardo da Vinci Category Aviation; safety; materials engineering Need / Reason It Emerged Controlled descent; safer fall from height How It Works Canopy fills, drag

Invention Name Microscope Short Definition Instrument that reveals fine details too small for the unaided eye. Approximate Date / Era Late 16th–early 17th century; 1595 example Contested Details

Invention Name Thermometer Short Definition Calibrated instrument that indicates temperature through a measurable physical change. Approximate Date / Period Late 16th–18th c. Certainty: Disputed Geography Europe (Italy, Netherlands, Sweden); later global adoption Inventor / Source Culture Early work: collective instrument makers; thermoscope linked to Galileo Category Measurement, science, medicine, industry Importance Standardizes temperature

Invention Name Chain Pump for Irrigation Short Definition A continuous water-lifting pump using an endless chain with paddles, buckets, or washers. Approximate Date / Period Before 1279 (Song-era agricultural engineering context); Certainty: ApproximateDetails Geography China; Southeast Asia; Europe (regional variants) Inventor / Source Culture Anonymous / collective (multi-region traditions) Category Irrigation; water lifting; agricultural engineering Importance Steady water supply for low-lift irrigation…

Invention Name Barometer Short Definition Atmospheric pressure measuring instrument Approximate Date / Period 1643–1644 (Disputed)Details Geography Italy (Florence), early modern Europe Inventor / Source Culture Evangelista Torricelli Category Meteorology, measurement, scientific instruments Importance Made air pressure measurable Enabled practical weather forecasting

Invention Name Horse Collar Short Definition Padded traction collar that shifts pulling force to the shoulders Approximate Date / Period 2nd century BCE (China) DebatedDetails 12th century CE (Europe, broad use) ApproximateDetails Geography China; Western Europe Inventor / Source Culture Anonymous / collective Category Agriculture; Transportation; Animal traction Importance Efficient draft power Faster plowing and hauling