The groups also differed in scores on a cognitive reflectiveness test, and a mediation model suggested that differences in reflectiveness partially accounted for greater pruning in the methamphetamine users. The effect of anxiety induction on craving was also positively associated by pruning levels.

HCs and methamphetamine users completed an established multistep planning task. From certain starting positions, the optimal path required transitioning through a large loss. Unlike other model parameters (planning horizon, reward sensitivity), group differences were selective to aversive pruning.

A Bayesian (Kalman filter) learning model also revealed slower learning rates in anxious depression independent of anxiety induction.

Anxiety induction reduced directed (but not random) exploration in healthy individuals, but not in those diagnosed with anxious depression. Directed exploration was also associated with scores on a cognitive reflection test.

We combined the Horizon Task with a somatic (interoceptive) anxiety induction using breathing resistance. Both healthy individuals and those diagnosed with anxious depression participated (N=58 and 61, respectively).