This review is a call to action: to rethink how we manage these landscapes, to blend innovation with tradition, and to rally political and public support for their conservation. If we act wisely, TAFs can continue to nourish both people and planet for generations to come.

Yet, despite their richness, these systems are under threat. Economic pressures, changing land-use patterns, and a loss of traditional knowledge are pushing them toward decline.

But their importance goes beyond biodiversity. TAFs contribute to carbon sequestration, soil fertility, water regulation, and even the preservation of cultural identity. They are multifunctional landscapes that offer solutions to some of today’s most pressing environmental challenges.

From the dehesas and montados of Southern Europe to the wood pastures and traditional orchards of Central and Eastern Europe, TAFs are home to an astonishing diversity of life all playing vital roles in maintaining ecological balance.

Our systematic review, spanning over 30 years of research and 232 studies, has brought new light to the value and vulnerability of these systems.

These landscapes, shaped by generations of farmers and shepherds, are more than just productive land. They are living ecosystems, cultural heritage sites, and models of sustainability.

Across Europe, there exists a quiet yet powerful legacy - Traditional Agroforestry Systems (TAFs) - where agriculture and biodiversity have coexisted for centuries.

Bottom line? When placed in similar climates and soils, black pine forests beyond their native range can function similarly than native ones.

Soil nutrients and drought had different effects depending on whether the forest was native.

Dense tree canopies reduced local diversity but increased variation across sites.

💡 Key findings:

Biodiversity patterns did not change much whether the forest was native or not.