Our results demonstrate that the EU is highly dependent on foreign—especially US—firms in areas like data centers and cloud services, while China has established digital sovereignty through strategic state ownership.

We distinguish between three different regulatory approaches, the market driven (US), the state-managed (China), and the mixed-governance (EU)
regulatory approach. They differ considerably in terms of ownership
structures and forms of governance.

This study examines how international ownership structures and state regulation shape control over digital infrastructures. It focuses on power conflicts, public interests, and the question of sovereign control over critical digital networks.